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OBJECTIF: Explorer la surmortalité infantile après la sortie de l'Hôpital de District de Kilifi, au Kenya, ainsi que sa durée et ses facteurs de risque. MÉTHODES: Des données médicales et démographiques ont été utilisées pour décrire la mortalité suite à une sortie de l'hôpital et la probabilité de survie parmi les enfants âgés de moins de 15 ans, par groupe d'âge et par syndrome clinique. Des modèles de régression de Cox ont été développés pour identifier les facteurs de risque. RÉSULTATS: Entre 2004 et 2008, environ 111 000 enfants ont été suivis, pour 555 000 personnes-ans Nous avons analysé 14 971 sorties et 535 décès survenus dans les 365 jours suivant la sortie. La mortalité était plus élevée dans la cohorte ayant quitté l'hôpital que dans la cohorte communautaire (rapport du taux en fonction de l'âge, RA: 7,7; intervalle de confiance à 95%, lC: de 6,6 à 8,9) et n'a que peu décliné avec le temps. On a constaté un risque de mortalité suite à la sortie de l'hôpital accru chez les enfants âgés de moins de 5 ans, avec les données suivantes: z-score poids/âge < -4 (rapport de risque, RR: 6,5); z-score poids/âge > -4 mais < -3 (RR: 3,4); hypoxie (RR: 2,3); bactériémie (RR: 1,8); hépatomégalie (RR: 2,3); jaunisse (RR: 1,8); hospitalisation > 13 jours (RR: 1,8). Un âge plus élevé était protecteur (référence < 1 mois): de 6 à 23 mois, RR: 0,8; de 2 à 4 ans, RR: 0,6. Les enfants présentant au moins un facteur de risque représentaient 545 (33%) des 1655 sorties annuelles de l'hôpital et 39 (47%) des 83 décès associés à la sortie de l'hôpital. CONCLUSION: L'admission hospitalière sélectionne les enfants fragiles présentant un risque de décès accru. Les facteurs de risques identifiés fournissent une base empirique pour un suivi efficace des patients non hospitalisés.

OBJECTIVE: To explore excess paediatric mortality after discharge from Kilifi District Hospital, Kenya, and its duration and risk factors. METHODS: Hospital and demographic data were used to describe post-discharge mortality and survival probability in children aged < 15 years, by age group and clinical syndrome. Cox regression models were developed to identify risk factors. FINDINGS: In 2004-2008, approximately 111 000 children were followed for 555 000 person-years. We analysed 14 971 discharges and 535 deaths occurring within 365 days of discharge. Mortality was higher in the post-discharge cohort than in the community cohort (age-adjusted rate ratio, RR:7.7; 95% confidence interval, CI: 6.6-8.9) and declined little over time.An increased post-discharge mortality hazard was found in children aged < 5 years with the following: weight-for-age Z score <-4 (hazard ratio, HR:6.5); weight-for-age Z score >-4 but <-3 (HR:3.4); hypoxia (HR:2.3); bacteraemia (HR:1.8); hepatomegaly (HR:2.3); jaundice (HR:1.8); hospital stay >13 days (HR:1.8).Older age was protective (reference <1 month): 6-23 months, HR:0.8; 2-4 years, HR:0.6. Children with at least one risk factor accounted for 545 (33%) of the 1655 annual discharges and for 39 (47%) of the 83 discharge-associated deaths. CONCLUSION: Hospital admission selects vulnerable children with a sustained increased risk of dying. The risk factors identified provide an empiric basis for effective outpatient follow-up.

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OBJETIVO: Examinar la sobremortalidad pediátrica tras el alta hospitalaria en el Hospital del Distrito de Kilifi (Kenia), así como su duración y factores de riesgo. MÉTODOS: Se emplearon datos hospitalarios y demográficos para describir la mortalidad tras el alta hospitalaria y la probabilidad de supervivencia en niños menores de 15 años, por franja de edad y síndrome clínico. Se elaboraron modelos de regresión de Cox para identificar los factores de riesgo. RESULTADOS: En 2004-2008, se siguieron aproximadamente 111 000 niños hasta un total de 555 000 años-persona. Analizamos 14 971 altas hospitalarias y 535 fallecimientos ocurridos en los 365 días siguientes al alta hospitalaria. La mortalidad fue mayor en la cohorte post-alta que en la cohorte de la comunidad (razón de tasas ajustada según la edad, RT: 7,7; intervalo de confianza del 95%, IC: 6,6-8,9) y decreció ligeramente con el tiempo. En niños menores de 5 años se encontró un mayor riesgo de mortalidad post-alta, junto con los siguientes estadísticos: puntuación Z de peso para la edad < -4 (cociente de riesgos instantáneos [hazard ratio, HR]: 6,5); puntuación Z de peso para la edad > -4 pero < -3 (HR: 3,4); hipoxia (HR: 2,3); bacteriemia (HR: 1,8); hepatomegalia (HR: 2,3); ictericia (HR: 1,8); estancia en el hospital > 13 días (HR: 1,8). A mayor edad el riesgo era menor (referencia < 1 mes): 6-23 meses, HR: 0,8; 2-4 años, HR: 0,6). Los niños con al menos un factor de riesgo representaban 545 (33%) de las 1655 altas anuales y 39 (47%) de los 83 fallecimientos relacionados con el alta. CONCLUSIÓN: En el ingreso hospitalario se selecciona a los niños vulnerables con un mayor riesgo de muerte constante. Los factores de riesgo identificados proporcionan una base empírica para un seguimiento ambulatorio eficaz.

There are few data from South Africa and other low- and middle-income countries on how mental disorders in childhood and adolescence may influence different aspects of socio-economic position, including educational attainment. We examined the association between early-onset disorders and subsequent educational achievement in a nationally representative sample of 4 351 South African adults. After adjusting for participant demographic characteristics and traumatic life events, post-traumatic stress disorder, major depressive disorder and substance-related disorders were each associated with increased odds of failing to complete secondary education (odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals 2.3, 1.0 - 5.1; 1.7, 1.2 - 2.5, and 1.7, 1.2 - 2.5, respectively). These data point to the role that early-life mental disorders may play in educational achievement and subsequent socio-economic position over the life course.

BACKGROUND: Although stressful life events (SLEs) are associated with psychopathology, the contribution from distal and proximal events and the specificity of their association with common mental disorders require further exploration. We examined the association of recent life events and past adversities to mood, anxiety, substance use and impulse control disorders in South Africa. METHODS: Data were analysed from the South African Stress and Health study, a population-based study of mental disorders in a nationally representative sample of 4 351 adults. Psychiatric disorders were assessed with the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). This included questions covering early and later SLEs (negative life events, relationship stress, partner violence, social strain and adverse events during childhood) and various socio-demographic variables. Logistic regression models were constructed for 3 957 respondents (2 371 female, 1 586 male) with no missing covariate data, to assess life stress and socio-demographic predictors of 12-month and lifetime disorder. RESULTS: Recent negative life events and relationship problems were significant predictors of any 12-month disorder and any lifetime disorder. Physical partner violence predicted any lifetime disorder. There was evidence of specificity for the prediction of mood versus anxiety disorders, with childhood adversity specifically associated with mood disorders but not anxiety disorders. Single marital status was the strongest socio-demographic predictor of any 12-month and any lifetime disorder. CONCLUSIONS: Stressful life events, distal and proximal, contribute significantly and independently to the prediction of major psychiatric disorders among South Africans, underscoring the importance of screening adversities in adults with common mental disorders, and of providing appropriate adjunctive interventions.

BACKGROUND: A nationally representative study of psychiatric disorders in South Africa provided an opportunity to study the association between perpetration of human rights violations (HRVs) during apartheid and psychiatric disorder. Prior work has suggested an association between perpetration and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), but this remains controversial. METHODS: Subjects reported on their perpetration of human rights violations, purposeful injury, accidental injury and domestic violence. Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 4th edition) disorders were assessed with Version 3.0 of the World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI 3.0). Socio-demographic characteristics of these groups were calculated. Odds ratios for the association between the major categories of psychiatric disorders and perpetration were assessed. RESULTS: HRV perpetrators were more likely to be male, black and more educated, while perpetrators of domestic violence ( DV) were more likely to be female, older, married, less educated and with lower income. HRV perpetration was associated with lifetime and 12-month anxiety and substance use disorders, particularly PTSD. Purposeful and DV perpetration were associated with lifetime and 12-month history of all categories of disorders, whereas accidental perpetration was associated most strongly with mood disorders. CONCLUSION: Socio-demographic profiles of perpetrators of HRV and DV in South Africa differ. While the causal relationship between perpetration and psychiatric disorders deserves further study, it is possible that some HRV and DV perpetrators were themselves once victims. The association between accidental perpetration and mood disorder also deserves further attention.

BACKGROUND: The South African Stress and Health (SASH) study is the first large-scale population-based study of common mental disorders in the country. This paper provides data on the 12-month and lifetime prevalence of these conditions. METHODS: Data from a nationally representative sample of 4 351 adults were analysed. Mental disorders were assessed with the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). An extensive survey questionnaire detailed contextual and socio-demographic factors, onset and course of mental disorders, and risk factors. Simple weighted cross-tabulation methods were used to estimate prevalence, and logistic regression analysis was used to study correlates of 12-month and lifetime prevalence. RESULTS: The lifetime prevalence for any disorder was 30.3%, and the most prevalent 12-month and lifetime disorders were the anxiety disorders. The Western Cape had the highest 12-month and lifetime prevalence rates, and the lowest rates were in the Northern Cape. CONCLUSIONS: The SASH study shows relatively high 12-month and lifetime prevalence rates. These findings have significant implications for planning mental health services.

BACKGROUND: There are few reports from South Africa on how common mental disorders may be associated with HIV-related perceptions and behaviours. METHODS: Between 2002 and 2004, 4 351 South African adults were interviewed. Psychiatric diagnoses of depression, anxiety and substance abuse disorders were based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 4th edition (DSM-IV). HIV-related fears, perceived risk and behaviour change were measured using multi-item scales. We analysed forms of behaviour change that were appropriate for risk reduction (such as changes in sexual behaviour) separately from behaviour changes that were inappropriate to prevent HIV (such as care over things touched or avoiding certain social situations). RESULTS: The presence of any DSM-IV-defined disorder during the previous 12 months was associated with previous HIV testing, increased HIV-related fears, and high levels of perceived risk of HIV. There were no associations between depression, anxiety and substance abuse disorders and appropriate forms of behaviour change for HIV risk reduction. However, individuals with an anxiety or a depressive disorder were more likely to report inappropriate forms of behaviour change. For example, individuals with any depressive and/or anxiety disorders were 1.57 and 1.47 times more likely, respectively, to report avoiding certain social situations to prevent HIV/AIDS compared with those who did not have such disorders (p<0.01 for both associations). DISCUSSION: The lack of appropriate forms of behaviour change to prevent HIV transmission, despite increased levels of HIV-related fear and perceived risk, underscores the need for HIV risk reduction interventions for individuals living with common mental disorders in South Africa.

BACKGROUND: There are limited data on substance use in South Africa. We describe patterns of substance use based on recent, nationally representative data. METHODS: Data were derived from the 2002 - 2004 South African Stress and Health (SASH) study. A nationally representative household probability sample of 4 351 adults was interviewed using the paper and pencil version of the World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). Data are reported for lifetime use, socio-demographic correlates of use, and age of cohort predicting lifetime use for four classes of drugs. RESULTS: The estimate for cumulative occurrence of alcohol use was 38.7%, of tobacco smoking 30.0%, of cannabis use 8.4%, of other drug use 2.0%, and of extra-medical psychoactive drug use 19.3%. There were statistically significant associations between male gender and alcohol, tobacco, cannabis and other drug use. Coloureds and whites were more likely than blacks to have used alcohol, tobacco and other drugs. Clear cohort variations existed in the age of initiation of drug use; these were most marked for other drugs and for extra-medical drug use. Use of all drug types was much more common in recent cohorts, with a similar cumulative incidence of tobacco, alcohol and cannabis use across age cohorts. CONCLUSIONS: Epidemiological patterns of use for alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, other drugs and extra-medical drugs provide the first nationally representative data. New findings on race and exploratory data on time trends provide a foundation for future epidemiological work on drug use patterns across birth cohorts and population subgroups in South Africa.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the demographic correlates of perceived discrimination and explore the association between perceived discrimination and psychiatric disorders. DESIGN: A national household survey was conducted between 2002 and 2004 using the World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) to generate diagnoses of psychiatric disorders. Additional instruments provided data on perceived discrimination and related variables. SETTING: A nationally representative sample of adults in South Africa. SUBJECTS: 4 351 individuals aged 18 years and older. OUTCOMES: 12-month and lifetime mood, anxiety and substance use disorders.] RESULTS: In the multivariate analyses, acute and chronic racial discrimination were associated with an elevated risk of any 12-month DSM-IV disorder when adjusted for socio-demographic factors, but this association was no longer statistically significant when adjusted for other sources of social stress. In fully adjusted models, acute racial discrimination was associated with an elevated risk of lifetime substance use disorders. Acute and chronic non-racial discrimination were associated with an elevated risk of 12-month and lifetime rates of any disorder, even after adjustment for other stressors and potentially confounding psychological factors. The association of chronic non-racial discrimination and 12-month and lifetime disorder was evident across mood, anxiety, and substance use disorders in the fully adjusted models. CONCLUSION: The risk of psychiatric disorders is elevated among persons who report experiences of discrimination. These associations are more robust for chronic than for acute discrimination and for non-racial than for racial discrimination. Perceived discrimination constitutes an important stressor that should be taken into account in the aetiology of psychiatric disorders.

BACKGROUND: Mental disorders are a major contributor to the burden of disease in all regions of the world. There are limited data on the epidemiology of major depressive disorder in South Africa. METHODS: A nationally representative household survey was conducted between 2002 and 2004 using the World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) to establish a diagnosis of depression. The dataset analysed included 4 351 adult South Africans of all racial groups. RESULTS: The prevalence of major depression was 9.7% for lifetime and 4.9% for the 12 months prior to the interview. The prevalence of depression was significantly higher among females than among males. The prevalence was also higher among those with a low level of education. Over 90% of all respondents with depression reported global role impairment. CONCLUSION: In comparison with data from other countries, South Africa has lower rates of depression than the USA but higher rates than Nigeria. The findings are broadly consistent with previous findings in South Africa. These findings are the first step in documenting a level of need for care in a context of significant under-funding of mental health services and research in South Africa.